Chinese Images 2

chinese images 1

CHINESE CULTURE 2

CHINESE CULTURE 2

Lecture No. 2

By Alex Brown

1.0 MAIN SOURCES OF CHINESE CULTURE

There is a close relationship between religion and art/design expressions and is further surrounded by a strong literary tradition.

a) Ancestral Observance and Worship inspired art/design for tomb decoration, rite and ritual divination and court events. Examples are:

During the Shang and Chou (1111-255BC) dynasties, the art of bronze casting becomes highly developed. Finely cast and richly decorated pieces included cooking and serving vessels, bells, drums, weapons and door fittings were found.

The oldest art forms in China are music and dance. A 5000 year old pottery bowl is painted with 15 dances adorned with Head-dresses and sashes and stepping in unison.

Music played an important role in Chinese courts and rituals. Bronze bells were instruments of investiture and reward. An ancient bell set (c. 430 BC) contains 64 bells, each producing a distinct tune in harmony with the rest. More than 120 music instruments were also recovered from the same tomb, mouth organs, zithers, flutes, drums and stone chimes.

b) Daoism inspired the love of nature and simplicity and is shown mainly in large brush painting of landscape in a linear and decorative style. Landscape gardening and architecture have also been influenced by Daoism.

c) Confucianism inspired the literary tradition in arts especially in calligraphy and other painting. Thus, it is not uncommon to find poems or literary writings on paintings. Master Apprentice relationship is also influenced by Confucian value of respect for the elder.

Buddhism further inspired cave and wall painting, carving and especially sculpture of large monumental sizes. It had also led to the building of pagodas Transforming China's architecture permanently.

2.0 CALLIGRAPHY

In a visual culture dominated by artefacts, calligraphy played an integral part since the early divination inscriptions. Styles of writing developed gradually as inscriptions were cast into bronze or cut into stone and bone. Later, ideas of spatial composition emerged.

Early Chinese calligraphy was also found in silk cloth. With the introduction of brush, ink and paper, calligraphers and painters found means to express themselves. Sophisticated brushwork began to appear and with it, the criteria for compositional judgement.

By the 4th century, calligraphy was considered an art. It expresses aesthetic and moral values A tool that conveys spontaneous feelings of the individual. Comparable to poetry expression. Became a scholarly pursuit by the Tang Dynasty times.

3.0 THE CULTURAL VALUE OF CALLIGRAPHY

Chinese have great fondness for the written language particularly the written characters. It rivals painting as fine art and play an important role when poetic captions are artfully written on the piece of painting, thereby enhancing the overall aesthetic quality. It is considered to have a number of abstract aesthetic qualities:

Balance Vitality Energy Bones Wind Strength Freedom of expression and the creation of styles:

meticulous and laborious 'seal' characters vs flamboyant and unconstrained grass' characters

4.0 PAINTING

Chinese painters employed the skills of brush and ink too expressing narrative themes of myth and history and also exploring poetic form of expression in landscape painting, and more decorative compositions in animal and Mower painting.

These forms of painting: narrative, decorative, romantic, poetic were pursued by professional painters and scholar painters i.e. the literati, elite educated class.

5.0 CHRONOLOGICAL ACCOUNT

Early anonymous and folk- oriented paintings were found on tomb and cave walls (many more were found during the Han Dynasty (206BC- 220AD).

Historical records showed fine art painters were known by the 6th century AD and their works were serially copied. Landscape painting called shanshui hua (mountain waterpainting) became prominent during the Tang Dynasty and reached the most vigorous period under the Sung and Ming Dynasties spanning from 960 to 1644 AD.

In the 20th century, painter Ch'i Pai shih, developed new distinct styles that internationalised traditional Chinese aesthetics.

After 1949, pressure for social realism ( Chinese painters were also sent to Soviet Union and other East European countries for art classes) made painters to shift their focus to such subjects like factory scenes, peasant villages, industry objects like buses, machines etc. Since Mao's dead in 1976 and with the liberalisation of arts that followed, more traditional forms of Chinese begin to reassert again.

6.0 CHINESE LANDSCAPE PAINTING

It represents the Chinese spirit away from the pomp of Imperial courts and Confucian morality.

The wise men find pleasure in waters; the virtuous men find it in the mountains'

Confucius

For the Daoist, water was an example of the Dao, and classic texts celebrated places where streams from the mountain gathered together. Basically, landscape paintings were painted to satisfy the longing for streams, forests and mountains, for companionship with mists and vapours, for the love of rural wild scenery seen in an aesthetically and sentimental way.

7.0 MAIN CONCEPTS IN CHINESE LANDSCAPE PAINTING

The Reality:

Resemblance reproduces formal aspects of objects, but neglects their spirit. He who tries to transmit the spirit by the means of formal aspect by merely rendering the outward appearance, will produce a dead thing.

Painter Ching Hao (900-960 AD)

Points of view: The observer has multiple points of view of a painting. The spanning eye, camera……

Shifting Perspective: The power to engage the spectator to make an imaginary journey within the landscape painting. Not to take the panorama with a glance but to wander, to explore and contemplate the nature as it portrays.

Composition: No four walls framing; appreciation extends beyond the painting. Profound and eternal.

Light: Absence of a lighting source to show limitless space and time though intensity and emphasis may vary in terms of ink tones.

Completion: The concept of completion is utterly alien to the Chinese way of thinking.The Chinese painter deliberately avoids a complete statement because he knows that we cannot know everything of what we describe, that what he paints cannot be complete, and can be true in a very limited sense. His landscape is not the final statement, but a starting point, not the end but the opening of a door.

8.0 SCULPTURE AND CARVING

Sculpture and carving have prehistoric links. However it never reached the renewed status of western individual artists as it is treated as artisan art. Sculpture abounds China in the forms of:

figures of animals standing on temples, tombs, guarding doorways

decorative figurines of roofs

carved grand cliff images of Buddha

carved wooden, jade and ceramic images of gods

Funeral Sculpture

Mythical animals, terracotta army of the Qin emperor etc.

Buddhist Sculpture

Buddhism influences inspired sculpture as a form of religious art. E.g. caves at Dunhuang, cliffs and caves of Yungang. As Buddhism encouraged adaptation and flexibility, new forms and styles were emerged as the Chinese adapted the teachings.

8.0 ARCHITECTURE

No other great architecture, except the Egyptian, can match this longevity or the slowness of change it entailed.

Wood was the main Chinese building material for both secular and religious structures while stone and brick were used mainly for fortifications.

Earliest wooden buildings go back to the 6th century namely the masonry pagodas.

Pagodas are the exclusively Chinese and they are evolved from the Indian stupa and the Han watch towers. Pagodas began to appear in China's architectural landscape under the Sui Dynasty.

Pagoda is a purely symbolic structure, a signal of faith in the greatness of Buddha, towering above the sacred relics buried in its foundations. It is found in monastery grounds and palaces.

Chinese architecture places visual importance to the roof. The basic roof construction is perfected by the 6th century, is intricate, a concave distinguishing profile.

9.0 LANDSCAPE GARDENING

A recurrent theme in Chinese art is the reproduction of the world in miniature. It is a desire to give a sense of order to world and representing it in a small comprehensible form.

House Garden (or Chinese Garden) - people could wander around in ecstasy.- admiring shanshui i.e. replicated artificial hills imported rocks man made streams and lakes. In short, it is heaven and earth, a paradise.- the garden is also designed to be looked at from definite places during the walk.- moon gates formed a frame to the view.- pavilions intricate cross latticed windows to provide delightful viewpoints.

Pending (miniature gardens in basins or pots)

The pending paradise is often in an enamel or ceramic basin with small real trees, grass, rocks etc. Sometimes these elements were made of jade, ivory and coral. A human figurine may be depicted too.

Chinese landscape gardens had influenced the European change towards informal garden. Before the 18th century, traditional concept of huge splendours gardens ea. Versailles, royal palace in Paris prevailed. It was the Jesuits accounts of Chinese gardens in the late 17th century that created the fashion.

10.0 ARTS AND CRAFTS

Since the opening of the Silk Road, there is a tradition in the West demanding luxury goods from China. Art and craft objects in demand were:

Bronze and other metalwork (gold especially)

Jade Carving

Pottery & Porcelain/ Ceramics

Silk Embroidery

Lacquering and Lacquer Carving

Cloisonne

Furniture Rosewood making

Glass

Ceramics: Most enduring of all Chinese decorative arts, it has been in production since more than 8 000 years ago. Functions of ceramic production:

architectural, burial, utilitarian, trade, ceremonial, decorative

Chinese porcelain is often seen as an artefact because of its distinct 'abstract' aura. They are admired for their:

clarity, harmony, economy, unity, rationality of shape, decoration

Famous artistic eras:

Cosmopolitan Tang period

Tang horses and camels

Court ladies, dancing acrobats

Arhats and the luohans (Mostly ceramic objects/sculptures)

Elegant Sung period

white lying wares, the subtle Ku green wares (duck egg blue),

the Guan (crackled grey green)

jade green ware.

Brilliant Ming period

blue Ming porcelain, famous cobalt

blue underglaze (factories of Jingdezhen)

Refined Complexity Ching period

Technical improvements, use of new pigments,

complexity of designs

Chan Buddhism of this period also brought the production of ceramics to a higher classic perfection especially the heightened meaning of tea drinking and tea ceremony (more in Japan).

11.0 OTHER ART FORMS

Theatre was an important popular art form in China. It originated from early religious dances, festivals to exorcise demons, preparation for harvest, hunting, warfare.

The Range of theatrical genres include acrobatic performances (since Tang Dynasty), display of martial arts urban story telling (since Sung Dynasty) operas or dramas (since Yuan Dynasty) song performances at eating houses etc.

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CHINESE CULTURE 1

NOTES ON CHINESE CULTURE

 Lecture No. 1

by Alex Brown

1.0 THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

China is surrounded by chains of mountains and deserts in the west and vast extensions of sea in the east. In the North, it is linked to Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea and Russia (outlying regions and islands). In the South, it is land linked to Indo China countries: Burma, Kampuchea, Vietnam, Laos and Thailand. Other neighbouring links include Russia, the Middle East countries and Japan.

Three main rivers serve the agricultural cultivated lands:

1. Yellow River (North)

2. Yangtze River (Central)

3. Xi River (South)

Because of its geographical position, China has more than 1 billion people with the Han Chinese constituting 95% of the population. The remainder consists of over 55 different ethnic groups. In terms of physical appearance, almost all are of Mongoloid stock. What makes the Han Chinese different from other ethnic group is the presence of a written language and sharing of same traditions Basically, more than one

fifth of mankind is of Chinese nationality.

2.0 EARLY HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDINGS

With 5000 years of recorded history, China is one of the few existing countries that also flourished economically culturally in the earliest stages of world civilisation. The most famous archeological finding of its pre-history is the Peking Man skeleton found in a cave site dating some 460,000 to 230,000 years ago. However skeletal remains of Chinese people date from the 29th to the 17th millennium BC.

Cultural life is shown through discoveries of decorated artefacts, primarily marked pottery vessels. Famous Chinese Neolithic pottery shapes, sizes and types (12th millennium to 2nd millennium) are the Yang shao(geometric painted) and Lung Shan (unpainted) puffery..

3.0.  TRADITION OF HISTORICAL RECORDINGS

China has a unique tradition of recording its own history. Chinese historical narrative dates China's dynastic history from the Hsia Dynasty (22nd 19th/18th century BC) to the Qing Dynasty (AD1644 -1911).

However in terms of historical records discovered, scholars have identified ideographic inscriptions of Chinese written language dating back to 5 000 BC or so. This is the Late Shang period where widespread Chinese written records are found in include the famous oracle bones with inscribed texts found in Anyang.

4.0  THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE AND CHINESE CULTURE

The written language is central to China's culture:  writing is the medium for the preservation and dissemination of culture. Command of the writing system distinguishes the  meaning of wen hua ( to become literate)  and command of writing thus relates to leadership skills.

5.0  PREHISTORIC CHINESE AGRICULTURE

Archaeological excavations showed domesticated crops by 5th millennium BC. Staples include millet, rice, fruits, nuts, legumes, vegetables and aquatic plants while the proteins include pigs, dogs, fish and shellfish. Soybeans, tea, hemp, mulberries and lacquer are also found.

6.0    CHINESE RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

a)       The Mandate of Heaven (part of Daoism). This can be seen as a form of consensus amongst the population that when there was peace and prosperity in the society, then heaven had given the emperor a mandate to rule. If, on the other hand when society was disrupted by famine or war, then it could be assumed that the emperor no longer had the mandate to rule and, thus rebellion was justified.

b)      Farmers were at the mercy of atmospheric phenomena which would influence yearly crops or cause  disasters like floods, droughts and famines. Prosperity and peace are thus depended on a harmonic balance between forces of nature.

The idea of harmony is constructed on the principle of opposite polarities: the concept of yin and yang

 negative vs positive

 male vs female

 light vs darkness

 right vs left

 
Earth vs Heaven

Thus

Yin vs Yang

There are mountain powers, ancestor powers, river powers but the highest of all is Shang Di, the High or Heaven, Tian Gong, the Sky Father. He controlled victory in battle, harvest, fate of cities, weather etc. and was an impartial figure who received no cult.

Hence, past Chinese emperors must be of pure nature and moral conduct to obtain the mandate of heaven to rule the country. In fact, the Zhou claimed that the Shang emperor was no more the Son of Heaven because he was corrupt and incapable to govern, therefore he had lost the mandate and had to be replaced.

7.0  ANCESTOR OBSERVANCE AND WORSHIP

Kinship grouping and elaborate graveside rituals and burials were already developed during the Shang Dynasty. Ties of affection, obligation, the psychological and ideological nature of kinship made social and family ties strong and such qualities have survived till today.

8.0   CONFICIANISM

Confucius (551-479BC), was essentially a philosopher. He wanted to reform the world through returning to traditions and classic studies because he believed the time of antiquity is a perfect virtue age.

His teachings are:    

ren - humanity or benevolence

yi -  righteousness

li -  propriety, rules of good manners/social behaviour

zhi - wisdom

xin - trustworthiness.

ciao - piety towards living parents and ancestors

zhong - loyalty and filial piety

shu - decency, reciprocity or mutual respect between ruler and    subjects

Confucianism fitted naturally into Chinese pattern of close family ties and paternal domination i.e. the father governed like an emperor and act with responsibility. Respect for the hierarchical line of relationship is encouraged.

9.0  CONFUCIAN CONTRIBUTION TO CHINESE SOCIETY

The Confucian examination system was enforced under the Han Dynasty. It created a class of bureaucrats or civil servants who had in common a classic education (up to PhD level) and a respect for learning and the arts and an ability to administer. This system: produced a profound respect for education and cultivation of the intellect and spirit was responsible for the largest single class of art patrons of any civilisation of the world.

10.0   Daoism

It is a uniquely Chinese religion compared to Buddhism. There are several levels of Daoism:

a)   Daoism as in performing of rites and rituals

b)   The philosophical Daoism with Lao

c)   Popular Daoism with magical practices

d)   NeoDaoism, Merge of Daoism, Buddhism and Confucianism

 

Lao -tze (? 640BC) preached renunciation of the world and a return to primitive simplicity. The sage person must find by himself the lean, the Way, the Path, the natural life force which liberates us from worldly human affairs, brings us closer to the universal laws of nature like the Yin & Yang etc. The sacred text of Daoism is Tao te Ching. Note this extract:

Something unformed and complete

Before heaven and Earth were formed

Solitary and silent

Stands alone and unchanging

pervading all things without limit

Its like the mother of all things under heaven

but I don't know its name - 

Better call it TAO

Better call it great

Daoism values the following:

freedom

freedom from time

individuality

nurturing spirit of solitude

nature

imagination

Neo-Daoism re-emerged later in the Sung Dynasty. It accepted Buddhism and Confucianism as it underwent a phase oftransformation.Throughout China's religious history, Daoist priests had often competed with Buddhist priests as the Daoists regarded Buddhism a foreign import.

11.0 DAOISM'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHINESE CULTURE

 preservation of rites and rituals

 alchemy

 astronomy

 technological inventions ( magnetic compass, gunpowder)

 landscaped gardens and paintings

 myths

 legendary gods and popular gods

 music / poetry with romance

Daoist counterpart of Guan Yin is Tien Hou Liang Liang (Queen of Heaven) But the supreme deity is Yu Huang Ta Ti, the Jade Emperor.

Other Daoist gods in the popular version of Daoism include Longevity God, Happiness God and Prosperity God.

12.0    BUDDHISM

Buddhism came into China during the Han Dynasty and became established in court circles during the Sui Dynasty. The introduction of Buddhism to China has been the important foreign cultural event. It came as a median between the strict hierarchical Confucianist concepts and dreamy Daoist practices.

Its main ideas are:

 there is individual salvation

 eternal peace in paradise

 subjugating desires of the world

 life is suffering

 methods to get rid of suffering

The Chinese in south first accepted Buddhism and it quickly spread to the north. Its appeal cut across all classes and had the support of both the aristocracy and the common peasant folks. Many monasteries were built especially in the south and they became centre of learning and culture.

Mahayana Buddhism is most popular among the Chinese. Stressing the Greater Vehicle doctrine, it teaches salvation through helping and saving people with the assistance of Bodhisattvas, enlightened beings, who delay their Nirvana in order to remain on earth to save mortals.

Buddhism is basically an adaptable religion. So the Chinese sinicized it to fit the local cultures, religions and philosophies. Thus images of Bodhisattvas are popular in China particularly Guan Yin, which assumes the attributes of a female deity during the Sung Dynasty. The Chinese believe the next Buddha is Mi Le Fo, the Laughing Buddha or Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future.

Another popular deity is Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise.

As Buddhism is adaptable, a monk called Bodhidharma in Loyang (516-534AD) founded Chan Buddhism (called Zen in Japan) and expounded the principles of:

there is no Buddha save the Buddha in our own pure nature,  all rituals, acts of worship and study of texts were worthless, only meditation would bring us into higher stages, enlightenment happened in rare flashy of blinding clarity  it is possible to reach the state of Nirvana without going through rebirth. Chan Buddhism or Zen can be seen as a fusion of Daoism and Buddhism

In all, as Buddhism is a foreign import, it has contributed much to Chinese culture and history.

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